NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 3 The Bases of Human Behaviour Psychology

NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 3 The Bases of Human Behaviour Psychology

Page No: 63

Review Questions

1. How does the evolutionary perspective explain the biological basis of behaviour?

Answer

The evolutionary perspective explains the biological behaviour by indicating the physiological as well as behavioural changes that occur due to the evolutionary process. These are necessary for the survival of species. These evolutions have resulted due to the influence of environmental demands. Some behaviours play an obvious role in evolution. For example, the ability to find food, avoid predators, and defend one’s young are the objectives related to the survival of the organisms as well as their species. Modern human beings possess some features for several thousand years. Three important features of modern human beings differentiate them from their ancestors:
• a bigger and developed brain with increased capacity for cognitive behaviours
• ability to walk upright on two legs, and
• a free hand with a workable opposing thumb

2.  Describe how neurons transmit information?

Answer

Neurons have dendrites, axon, soma and terminal buttons to transmit information. Dendrites receive the incoming neural impulses from adjacent neurons or directly from the sense organs in electrochemical form. The received signals are passed on to soma and then to axon so that the information is relayed to another neuron or to muscles. The axon conducts the information along its length. At the terminal point the axon branches into small structures, called terminal buttons which have the capability for transmitting information to another neuron, gland and muscle.

3. Name the four lobes of the cerebral cortex. What functions do they perform?

Answer

The four lobes of the cerebral cortex and their functions are:
• Frontal lobe: It is mainly concerned with cognitive functions, such as attention, thinking, memory, learning, and reasoning. It also exerts inhibitory effects on autonomic and emotional responses.
• Parietal lobe: It is mainly concerned with cutaneous sensations and their coordination with visual and auditory sensations.
• Temporal lobe: It is primarily concerned with the processing of auditory information. It also helps in memorising symbolic sounds and words and understanding of speech and written language.
• Occipital lobe: It is mainly concerned with visual information. It also interprets visual impulses, memorises visual stimuli and helps in colour visual orientation.

4. Name the various endocrine glands and the hormones secreted by them. How does the endocrine system affect our behaviour?

Answer

Endocrine glands	Hormones
1. Pituitary gland	(a) Growth Hormones (b) Gonadotropic
2. Thyroid gland	(a) Thyroxin
3. Adrenal gland	(a) Corticoids (b) Epinephrin (c) Norepinephrine
4. Pancreas	(a) Insulin
5. Gonads	(a) Estrogens (b) Progesterone - in females (c) Androgens - in males (d) Testosterone - in males

The endocrine glands play a crucial role in our behaviour. They secrete specific chemical substances, called hormones, which control some of our behaviours. The normal functioning of all hormones is
crucial to our behavioural well-being. Without a balanced secretion of hormones, the body would be unable to maintain the state of internal equilibrium. Without the increased secretion of hormones during the times of stress, we would not be able to react effectively to potential dangers in our environment. Also, without the secretion of hormones at specific times in our lives, we would not be able to grow, mature and reproduce

5.  How does the autonomic nervous system help us in dealing with an emergency situation?

Answer

The autonomic nervous system controls activities which are normally not under direct control of individuals. It has two divisions: Sympathetic division and Parasympathetic division. It deals
with emergencies when the action must be quick and powerful, such as in situations of fight or flight. During this period, the digestion stops, blood flows from internal organs to the muscles and breathing rate, oxygen supply, heart rate, and blood sugar level increases.

6. Explain the meaning of culture and describe its important features.

Answer

Culture refers to the man-made part of the environment. It comprises diverse products of the behaviour of many people, including ourselves. These products can be material objects such as tools,
sculptures, ideas such as categories, norms or social institutions such as family, school.
Its important features are:
• It includes behavioural products of others who preceded us.
• It contains values that will be expressed and a language in which to express them.
• It contains a way of life that will be followed by most of us who grow up in that context.
• It is identified with a historically transmitted pattern of meanings embodied in symbols.

7.  Do you agree with the statement that ‘biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors’? Give reasons in support of your answer.

Answer

Yes, biology plays an enabling role, while specific aspects of behaviour are related to cultural factors. Many of our behaviours are influenced by hormones and many others occur as reflexive responses but human behaviour is moe complex. A major reason for this complexity is that human have a culture to regulate their behaviour. For example, sexual behaviour involves hormones and reflexive reactions in animals and human beings alike. While among animals sexual behaviour is fairly simple and reflexive but it is so complex among human beings that it can hardly be described as reflexive. Partner preferences are a key feature of human sexual behaviour. The bases of these preferences widely differ within and across societies. Human sexual behaviour is also governed by many rules, standards, values, and laws. Thus, biological factors alone cannot help us very much in understanding human behaviour. Human nature has evolved through an interplay of biological and cultural forces.

8. Describe the main agents of socialisation.

Answer

The main agents of socialisation are:

→ Parents: They have most direct and significant impact on children’s development. Parents encourage and discourage certain behaviours among children. They also arrange to put children in a variety of situations that provide them with a variety of positive experiences, learning opportunities, and challenges. The conditions of life in which parents live such as poverty, illness, job stress, nature of family also influence the styles they adopt in socialising children. Grandparental proximity and network of social relationships also play role in child socialisation directly or through parental influences.

→ School: This provides children with a fairly organised set up for interaction with teachers and peers. Children learn not only cognitive skills such as reading, writing but also many social skills such as ways of behaving with elders and age mates, accepting roles. They learn and internalise the norms and rules of society also several other positive qualities, such as self-initiative, self-control, responsibility, and creativity are encouraged which make children more self- reliant.

→ Peer group: It provides children not only with a good opportunity to be in company of others. Qualities like sharing, trust, mutual understanding, role acceptance and fulfilment develop in interaction with peers. Children also learn to assert their own point of view and accept and adapt to those of others. Development of self-identity is greatly facilitated by the peer group.

→ Media influences: Children learn about many things from television, newspapers, books and cinema. Adolescents and young adults often derive their models from television and cinema. The exposure to violence on television is a major issue of discussion, since studies indicate that observing violence on television enhances aggressive behaviour among children. There is need to use this agent of socialisation in a better way in order to prevent children from developing undesirable behaviours.

9. How can we distinguish between enculturation and socialisation? Explain.

Answer

Enculturation	Socialisation
It refers to all learning that takes place without direct, deliberate teaching.	It is a deliberate process that takes place through agencies like family, school, peer group and media.
It refers to all learning that occurs in human life because of its availability in our socio-cultural context.	It is a process by which individuals acquire knowledge, skills and dispositions, which enable them to participate as effective members of groups and society.
It takes place through observation.	It takes place through interaction.

10. What is meant by acculturation? Is acculturation a smooth process? Discuss.

Answer

Acculturation refers to cultural and psychological changes resulting from contact with other cultures. Contacts may be direct, indirect, voluntary or involuntary.
The smoothness of acculturation depends upon the re-socialisation of the people. Sometimes people find it easy to learn these new things, and if their learning has been successful, shifts in their behaviour easily take place in the direction of the group that brings in acculturation. In this situation transition to a new life is relatively smooth. On the other hand, in many situations people experience difficulties in dealing with new demands of change. They find change difficult, and are thrown into a
state of conflict. This situation is relatively painful not so smooth.

11. Discuss the acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation.

Answer

The acculturative strategies adopted by individuals during the course of acculturation are:
• Integration : It refers to an attitude in which there is an interest in both, maintaining one’s original culture and identity, while staying in daily interaction with other cultural groups.
• Assimilation : It refers to an attitude, which people do not wish to maintain their cultural identity, and they move to become an integral part of the other culture.
• Separation : It refers to an attitude in which people seem to place a value on holding on to their original culture, and wish to avoid interaction with other cultural groups.
• Marginalisation : It refers to an attitude in which there is little possibility or interest in one’s cultural maintenance, and little interest in having relations with other cultural groups.

NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology

NCERT Solutions for Class 11th: Ch 2 Methods of Enquiry in Psychology 

Page No: 42

Review Questions

1. What are the goals of scientific enquiry?

Answer

The goals of scientific enquiry are:

→ Description: It is important in scientific enquiry to describe a behaviour or a phenomenon as accurately as possible which helps in its proper understanding.

→ Prediction: The second goal of scientific enquiry is understanding of a particular behaviour in relationship to other behaviours, events or phenomena. It tries to predict their occurrences under certain conditions with a margin of error. Prediction becomes more accurate with the increase in the number of persons observed.

→ Explanation: The third goal of psychological enquiry is to know the causal factors or determinants of behaviour and the conditions where the behaviour does not occur.

→ Control: If a person able to explain why a particular behaviour occurs, person can control that behaviour by making changes in its antecedent conditions. Control refers to three things: making a particular behaviour happen, reducing it, or enhancing it.

→ Application: The final goal of the scientific enquiry is to bring out positive changes in the lives of people through application of a particular behaviour.

2. Describe the various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry.

Answer

The various steps involved in conducting a scientific enquiry are: 

→ Conceptualising a Problem: The researcher have to select a theme or topic for study. Then narrows down the focus and develops specific research questions or problems for the study. This is done on the basis of review of past research, observations, and personal experiences. Next, they have to prepare a hypothesis or a tentative solution of the problem.

→ Collecting Data: The second step in scientific research is to collect data. Data collection requires developing a research design or a blueprint of the entire study. It requires taking decisions about the following four aspects: participants in the study, methods of data collection, tools to be used in research, and procedure for data collection.

→ Drawing Conclusions : The next step is to analyse data so collected through the use of statistical procedures to understand what the data mean. This can be achieved through graphical representations such as preparation of pie-chart, bar-diagram, etc. and by the use of different statistical methods.It helps to verify the hypothesis and draw conclusions by putting them into an appropriate context.

→ Revising Research Conclusions:The existing hypothesis is finally confirmed on the basis of revision of data else, a new hypothesis is stated and tested by new data. The research may also be revised by other researchers, hence making it a continuous process.

3. Explain the nature of psychological data.

Answer

The nature of psychological data are:

→ These are approximate the reality to some extent and provide an opportunity to verify or falsify our ideas, hunches, notions, etc.

→ These are are not independent of the physical or social context, the persons involved, and the time when the behaviour occurs.

→ The method of data collection such as survey, interview, experiment, etc. used and the characteristics of respondents such as, individual or group, young or old, male or female, rural or urban, etc. also influence the nature and quality of data.

4. How do experimental and control groups differ? Explain with the help of an example.

Answer

Experimental groups differ from control groups as independent variable manipulation occurs in an experimental group whereas it is absent in a control group. For example, in the study by Latane and Darley, there were two experimental groups and one control group. The participants in the study were sent to three types of rooms.
In one room no one was present (control group). In the other two rooms, two persons were already seated (experimental groups).
The independent variable, in this study, was the absence or presence of other persons sitting in the room. The remaining factors in the experiment were the same for both kinds of groups. In experimental groups, two persons were present with the real participant while in the control group, participant was alone. Therefore, it can be said that the manipulated variable is absent in control group.

5. A researcher is studying the relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people. Formulate a relevant hypothesis and identify the independent and dependent variables.

Answer

A study of relationship between speed of cycling and the presence of people.

Hypothesis− As the speed of cycling increases people tend to move away fast.
Field experiment − Two market places
A boy is asked to ride a bicycle with different speeds in the market.
Market 1 − It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with high speed on the bicycle, people surrounding him will get away quickly in order to protect themselves from getting hit by the cycle.
Market 2 − It is observed that when the boy passes through the market street with normal speed on the bicycle people around him will get away normally and slowly to give him the way as compared to the people of market 1.
Conclusion− When the speed of the cycle is high people move away from it quickly and when the speed of cycle is normal people will move away slowly in comparison.
Revision of research conclusion − The conclusion has matched the hypothesis. Therefore, the hypothesis is correct.
Independent variable − Speed of cycle
Dependent variable − Movement of people

6. Discuss the strengths and weaknesses of experimental method as a method of enquiry.

Answer

The strengths of experimental method as a method of enquiry are:
→ It makes possible to determine whether changes in the independent variable cause subsequent changes in the dependent variable.
→ The extraneous variables can be minimised.
→ It is used to minimise the sequence effect with the help of counter-balancing technique.
→ It eliminates any potential systematic differences between groups through random assignment of participants to different groups

The weaknesss of experimental method as a method of enquiry are:
→ A highly controlled laboratory only simulate situations that exist in the outside world.

→ The experiments may produce results that do not generalise well, or apply to real situations.
→ It is not always feasible to study a particular problem experimentally.
→ It is difficult to know and control all the relevant variables.

7. Dr. Krishnan is going to observe and record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school without attempting to influence or control the behaviour. Which method of research is involved? Explain the process and discuss its merits and demerits.

Answer

Non-participant observation method is involved in research of Dr. Krishnan here. He can install a video camera to record children’s play behaviour at a nursery school or sit in a corner of the class without interfering or participating in their everyday activities and then analyse and conclude it.

• Merits: The researcher study people and their behaviour in a naturalistic situation, as it occurs.

• Demerits: This method is labour intensive, time consuming, and is susceptible to the observer’s bias. Our observation is influenced by our values and beliefs about the person or the event.

8. Give two examples of the situations where survey method can be used. What are the limitations of this method?

Answer

Two Examples of the situations where survey method can be used are:
→ The attitude of people towards family planning.

→ The attitude towards giving powers to the panchayati raj institutions for running programmes related to health, education, sanitation etc.

The limitations of this method are:
→ People may give inaccurate information because of memory lapses or they may not want to let the researcher know what they really believe about a particular issue.
→ People sometimes offer responses they think the researcher wants to hear.

9. Differentiate between an interview and a questionnaire.

Answer

Interview	Questionnaire
It is a form of interaction in which questions are asked directly to the respondents.	It is a framework in which questions of scientific enquiry are written.
Its questions may vary in their sequence according to the need of the situation.	It consists of a predetermined set of questions.
Researcher and respondents are in face-to-face contact.	Researcher and respondents are not required to be in face-to-face contact.
Number of questions can be increased or decreased.	Number of questions cannot be changed.

10. Explain the characteristics of a standardised test.

Answer

The characteristics of a standardised test are:

• Reliability: It refers to the consistency of scores obtained by an individual on the same test on two different occasions. Test-retest indicates temporal stability and split-half indicates internal consistency of the test.

• Validity: The test has to be devised to measure what it claims to measure in order to be held as valid and usable.

• Norms: The test needs to devise norms or the average performance of the group. It helps in comparison and interpretation of an individual's performance in relation to the overall standards of the group.

11. Describe the limitations of psychological enquiry.

Answer

The limitations of psychological enquiry are:

• Lack of True Zero Point: Psychological measurements do not have a true zero point. For example, no person in this world has zero intelligence.The scores given to an individual in psychological studies, are not absolute in nature; rather, they have relative value.

• Relative Nature of Psychological Tools: Psychological tests are developed keeping in view the salient features of a particular context. For example, a test developed for urban children is not suitable and cannot be applied on tribal children.

• Subjective Interpretation of Qualitative Data: Data from qualitative studies are largely subjective since they involve interpretation on the part of the researcher as well as the person providing data. The interpretations may vary from one individual to the other.

12. What are the ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry?

Answer

The ethical guidelines that a psychologist needs to follow while conducting a psychological enquiry are:

• Voluntary Participation : This principle states that the persons on whom researcher want to conduct the study should have the choice to decide whether to participate or not to participate in the study.

• Informed Consent : It is essential that the participants in a study should understand what will happen to them during the study.

• Debriefing : Once the study is over, the participants are provided with necessary information to complete their understanding of research.

• Sharing the Results of the Study : In psychological research, after collecting information from the participants, we come back to our places of work, analyse the data and draw conclusions. It is obligatory for the researcher to go back to the participants and share the results of the study with them.
• Confidentiality of Data Source : The participants in a study have the right to privacy. The researcher must safeguard their privacy by keeping the information provided by them in strict confidence.